In women who have a diagnosis of APS (both clinical and laboratory criteria) the chance for successful pregnancy is reduced. In these cases, treatment appears to be a clear option, particularly in the case of prior thromboembolic events. The current preference of treatment for women with RPL and aPL antibodies is subcutaneous heparin and aspirin. This treatment should begin with a positive pregnancy test and continue postpartum. It is unclear, at this time, what treatment, if any, is required for women who do not meet all the criteria for diagnosis of APS, but who are known to have aPL antibodies. In some cases, these women were tested because of a prior false-positive test for syphilis, with subsequent identification of aPL antibodies. More recently, women undergoing IVF were tested and found to have an increased incidence of aPL antibodies. It was suggested that aPL antibodies are associated with infertility and failure to implant. However, a summary of published reports indicate that positive aPL antibodies in patients undergoing IVF do not influence ongoing pregnancy rates. This subject, however, remains an area of active investigation because aPL antibodies were shown to interact with the syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast layers and could, theoretically, after implantation.