On the whole, the literature suggests that toddlers and young children who are exposed prenatally to cocaine exhibit few, if any, consistent differences in developmental functioning compared with demographically similar, nonexposed, age-matched controls. The paucity of cocaine-related findings does not mean that prenatally cocaine-exposed children are free from developmental problems. Cocaine-exposed infants may well have specific deficits that are masked by confounding factors in study designs; however, more important is the worrisome finding that the average performance of both drug-exposed and nonexposed children in the literature tends to be poorer than expectations for age. This problem likely stems from the fact that most study children in the literature (regardless of exposure status) come from low-income backgrounds and consequently have been exposed to multiple medical and social risk factors associated with long-term poverty. The fact that exposure to multiple risk factors has powerful, compromising effects on children's outcomes may overshadow any specific effects of prenatal cocaine exposure. The problem of high cumulative risk in the literature raises both methodologic and clinical issues. To disentangle the relationship among prenatal cocaine exposure and other comorbid risk factors in predicting children's outcomes, investigators in future studies should recruit samples with varying levels of accumulated risk. This increased range of risk will also permit researchers to evaluate the interaction of exposure status and risk status and identify specific protective factors that may contribute to resilient outcomes for these infants. This information will be helpful in the design and timing of intervention services for these high-risk infants and their families. On a clinical level, when exposed children present for interventional services, professionals must not limit their remedial efforts to drug treatment alone. Rather, clinicians should also view prenatal drug exposure as a possible marker for the presence of multiple medical and social risk factors (e.g., maternal psychopathology, social isolation, child maltreatment, domestic violence, or inadequate caregiving). Because any of these factors may place children in developmental jeopardy, these comorbid risk factors must be considered, together with prenatal drug exposure, and, when possible, treated. Although confronting this wide range of problems may seem overwhelming, many conditions associated with poverty are treatable. Moreover, from the perspective of the cumulative risk model, interventions are most likely to succeed if they attempt to reduce the overall burden of risk rather than targeting single risks.