Dairy cattle productive lifespan averages approximately 3 yr after first calving. Changes in the last decade in reproductive performance, genetic merit, and societal concerns regarding animal welfare and the environmental footprint of dairy products warrant a critical review of decision making regarding dairy cattle productive lifespan. The objective of this study is to provide such a review. Economic decision making drives the majority of culling decisions and, by extension, dairy cattle productive lifespan. Historically, models focused on optimizing replacement decisions for individual cows found economically optimal productive lifespans of 40 mo or more. However, cow performance and prices have changed and the average findings of these models may no longer hold. Management and housing may affect productive lifespan through improvements in health care and cow comfort. Improvements in reproductive efficiency and the availability of sexed semen are leading to an abundance of dairy heifers on many dairy farms, which often results in shorter productive lifespans in herds of fixed sizes. There is also a growing interest in the use of beef semen in dairy cattle, which does not add to the supply of dairy heifers. Acceleration of genetic gain due to genomic testing should likely result in shorter productive lifespans. Younger herds capitalize on genetic progress but have fewer efficient mature cows and have greater replacement costs. Extending dairy cattle productive lifespan might decrease the environmental footprint of milk production because fewer heifers need to be raised. Short productive lifespans, especially as a result of much forced culling early in lactation, are often signs of reduced welfare. Possible extensions of productive lifespan through improved welfare may alleviate public concerns about dairy production, although longer productive lifespans for healthy cows are not necessarily more profitable. A simple model of the economically optimal productive lifespan illustrates the tradeoffs between herd replacement cost, maturity and aging costs, genetic opportunity cost, and calf value opportunity cost. Combined, these factors suggest that an average productive lifespan of approximately 5 yr is warranted. In conclusion, increases in genetic gain, reproductive efficiency, cow comfort, and health care will increase the opportunity of herd managers to change productive lifespan to increase profitability, improve societal acceptance of dairy production, or both.