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The inhibitory effect of the cationic peptide protamine on Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, and Shewanella putrefaciens has been studied in detail. The addition of protamine (10 to 1,000 micrograms/ml) resulted in inhibition of oxygen consumption after less than 1 min and loss of intracellular carboxyfluorescein and ATP after 2 to 5 min. Maximum antibacterial activity was reached at alkaline pH and in the absence of divalent cations. The efficient permeabilization of cell envelopes of both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria suggests that protamine causes a general disruption of the cell envelope, leading to a rapid and nonspecific efflux of low- and high-molecular-weight compounds.
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